But the real drawing card is the tomb of Pope Julius II, with one of the world's most famous sculptures: Michelangelo's Moses.
Around 1505 Pope Julius II, an important patron of Michelangelo's, commissioned the 30-year-old sculptor to design and execute the pope's sepulchre. The original design called for a rectangular ground plan on which a four-sided structure would be erected. The design incorporated pilasters, cornices and niches in which statues would be placed to represent the fine arts and the sciences. At the four corners, above the cornice, would be placed four very large marble figures representing active life, contemplative life, St Paul, and Moses. Topping off the whole structure would be a statue of the pope, whose body would rest inside the tomb. The planned size and ambitious decoration seemed set to create a new standard for funerary art.
However, Michelangelo was soon diverted from the monumental project -- and from his first love of sculpting -- to painting the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. When the pope died in 1513, his heirs asked that he be interred in a simpler, less expensive tomb, one that could be completed quickly. What Michelangelo eventually called "the tragedy of the tomb" came to a close in 1545 when a much smaller version of the tomb was installed in the Church of St Peter in Chains, rather than in St Peter's, as first planned. Figures Michelangelo sculpted for the mausoleum were been dispersed. Most famously, of four slave figures sculpted for the lowest level, two are now in Florence and two are in Paris.
The monument is not freestanding, but is attached to one wall (see above photo). And it is called the Tomb of Pope Julius II, even though his body actually rests at St Peter's. What we see at St Peter in Chains, then, is a much scaled-down version of the artist's design in which Michelangelo's intention is further thwarted by the placement of the Moses figure: instead of looking virtually across at Moses, we are meant to be gazing upwards. From this vantage point, though, visitors can look for the chip on Moses' knee that was, according to one story, the result of Michelangelo's hurling his chisel at the statue. The artist, in awe of the life-like qualities that emerged from the marble as he worked, is said to have thrown the chisel and screamed at the statue, " Why don't you talk?"
The horns have elicited various interpretations. The likeliest explanation is that Michelangelo relied on Jerome's vulgate translation of the Old Testament. In this commonly available version, the "rays of light" that were seen around Moses' face after his meeting with God on Mt Sinai were expressed as horns. Some people believe that Jerome's intention was to express a metaphor for the glory of God reflected from Moses''s face.
After soaking in this masterpiece created by one who has been called the greatest sculpture artist the world has ever known, I headed downhill (map) toward the Colosseum.
The monument is not freestanding, but is attached to one wall (see above photo). And it is called the Tomb of Pope Julius II, even though his body actually rests at St Peter's. What we see at St Peter in Chains, then, is a much scaled-down version of the artist's design in which Michelangelo's intention is further thwarted by the placement of the Moses figure: instead of looking virtually across at Moses, we are meant to be gazing upwards. From this vantage point, though, visitors can look for the chip on Moses' knee that was, according to one story, the result of Michelangelo's hurling his chisel at the statue. The artist, in awe of the life-like qualities that emerged from the marble as he worked, is said to have thrown the chisel and screamed at the statue, " Why don't you talk?"
The horns have elicited various interpretations. The likeliest explanation is that Michelangelo relied on Jerome's vulgate translation of the Old Testament. In this commonly available version, the "rays of light" that were seen around Moses' face after his meeting with God on Mt Sinai were expressed as horns. Some people believe that Jerome's intention was to express a metaphor for the glory of God reflected from Moses''s face.
After soaking in this masterpiece created by one who has been called the greatest sculpture artist the world has ever known, I headed downhill (map) toward the Colosseum.
Just before arriving at the great amphitheater, I came across the Sette Sale, near Nero’s Domus Aurea. This massive cistern was built here to supply the enormous quantities of water needed for the baths of Trajan.
From the Sette Sale I had a commanding view of The Colosseum. Its crumbling, oval bulk is the greatest monument of ancient Rome, and visitors are impressed with its size (accommodate 50.000), its majesty, and its ability to conjure up the often cruel games that were played out for the pleasure of the Roman masses - Ut quisquem vicerit occidat - Kill the loser whoever he may be Romans could have free spectacles; it was a right of the citizens to join banquets offered by the rich and famous, and to enjoy shows in the circus or the amphitheatre. The emperor and the nobility to get social consensus offered the games.
Panem et circenses were given to the public so as to distract their attention from more important matters. The yearly schedule and the organization of the ludi, the games in honor of the gods, were at first regulated by law, since the games had started as religious rites. Later on, when prominent citizens took over the expense of the "production", the sacred character of the games was almost forgotten.
The most popular games were the chariot races, which took place in the circus, and the naval battles reproduced within special facilities. The Ludi Gladiatori in the amphitheatre were less frequent, but immensely popular, too. They were generally associated with a staged hunt of wild animals (a show that sometimes entailed the execution of condemned criminals). During the 2nd and 3rd century BC the popularity of the games increased; Livy reports that in 216 the Forum hosted a combat of 22 pairs; in 183 sixty pairs of gladiators fought at the funerals of Publius Licinius Crassus; in 174 a show lasted for three days. In 105 BC the consuls were finally authorized to organize ludi circenses, so they became a public event. The last gladiatorial game in the Colosseum is recorded in AD 438, when the emperor Valentinian III abolished the games.
Were Christians ever tortured and killed in the Colosseum?
The answers seems to be no. The original sources on the amphitheatre are very few, and a connection between Christian martyrdom and the Colosseum still has to be found, though the Church for many years has credited the story of Christian martyrs finding death in the arena (something similar happened, but it was in Gallia). On the subject I prefer to quote the Catholic Encyclopedia on the net. Entry: Colosseum, or ... Coliseum Pope St. Pius (1566-72) is said to have recommended persons desirous of obtaining relics to procure some sand from the arena of the Coliseum, which, the pope declared, was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. The opinion of the pontiff, however, does not seem to have been shared by his contemporaries.
Since I had already taken a tour of the interior with my college students on an earlier trip, I did not join the throngs lined up at the entrance waiting for admission. I did watch men dressed up as Roman soldiers engaged tourists who posed for photo shoots.
As I headed northwest away from the Colosseum towards the Roman Forum, to the left was Palatine Hill that overlooks the Forum. This was the home of the emperors. The road to the left is the Via di San Gregorio. It was Mussolini who issued the controversial orders to cut through centuries of debris and junky buildings to reveal many archaeological treasures and carve out this boulevard linking the Colosseum to the grand 19th-century monuments of Piazza Venezia (that we will visit later). Immediately in front was the Arch of Constantine that stood between the Colosseum and the Forum.
The most popular games were the chariot races, which took place in the circus, and the naval battles reproduced within special facilities. The Ludi Gladiatori in the amphitheatre were less frequent, but immensely popular, too. They were generally associated with a staged hunt of wild animals (a show that sometimes entailed the execution of condemned criminals). During the 2nd and 3rd century BC the popularity of the games increased; Livy reports that in 216 the Forum hosted a combat of 22 pairs; in 183 sixty pairs of gladiators fought at the funerals of Publius Licinius Crassus; in 174 a show lasted for three days. In 105 BC the consuls were finally authorized to organize ludi circenses, so they became a public event. The last gladiatorial game in the Colosseum is recorded in AD 438, when the emperor Valentinian III abolished the games.
Were Christians ever tortured and killed in the Colosseum?
The answers seems to be no. The original sources on the amphitheatre are very few, and a connection between Christian martyrdom and the Colosseum still has to be found, though the Church for many years has credited the story of Christian martyrs finding death in the arena (something similar happened, but it was in Gallia). On the subject I prefer to quote the Catholic Encyclopedia on the net. Entry: Colosseum, or ... Coliseum Pope St. Pius (1566-72) is said to have recommended persons desirous of obtaining relics to procure some sand from the arena of the Coliseum, which, the pope declared, was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. The opinion of the pontiff, however, does not seem to have been shared by his contemporaries.
Since I had already taken a tour of the interior with my college students on an earlier trip, I did not join the throngs lined up at the entrance waiting for admission. I did watch men dressed up as Roman soldiers engaged tourists who posed for photo shoots.
As I headed northwest away from the Colosseum towards the Roman Forum, to the left was Palatine Hill that overlooks the Forum. This was the home of the emperors. The road to the left is the Via di San Gregorio. It was Mussolini who issued the controversial orders to cut through centuries of debris and junky buildings to reveal many archaeological treasures and carve out this boulevard linking the Colosseum to the grand 19th-century monuments of Piazza Venezia (that we will visit later). Immediately in front was the Arch of Constantine that stood between the Colosseum and the Forum.
This arch commemorates the acceptance of Christianity in the Roman Empire. Constantine had a vision that he would conquer under the sign of the cross defeated his rival Maxentious in AD 312. I zoomed in on the carved figures of previous emperors (and Constantine) with victorious Roman soldiers.
I headed for the Via Sacra; the ancient Roman road that ran through the Forum. Straight ahead was The Arch of Titus (1st century AD) that commemorates the victory over Israel in 70 AD.
I headed for the Via Sacra; the ancient Roman road that ran through the Forum. Straight ahead was The Arch of Titus (1st century AD) that commemorates the victory over Israel in 70 AD.
The Romans defeated the rebels, took Jerusalem, sacked their temple and brought home 50,000 slaves to build this arch (and the Colosseum). Roman propaganda décorates the inside of the arch. Titus is in a chariot being crowned by the goddess Victory. Note on the other side soldiers carrying a Jewish menorah and other plunder. On the ceiling Titus is riding an eagle to heaven to become one of the gods. Straight ahead at the far end of the Via Sacra I could see Capitol Hill with the Temple of Saturn.
And now for The Roman Forum—This takes in the most central of the monuments and ruins that attest to the military and architectural grandeur of ancient Rome. As a whole, they make up the most famous and evocative ruins in the world. After the collapse of Rome and during the Dark Ages, the forums and many of the other sites on this tour were lost to history, buried beneath layers of debris, their marble mined by medieval builders. During the Middle Ages, when this was a cow pasture and all these stones were underground, there was a dual column
of elm trees connecting the Arch of Titus with the Arch of Septimius Severus (A.D. 200), to my right. That was until Benito Mussolini set out to restore the grandeur of Rome by reminding his compatriots of their glorious past.
Those three gaping arches (barreled vaults) up ahead to my right were part of the Basilica of Constantine--At the time of Constantine's victory (A.D. 306), the great basilica was only half finished, having been started by the unfortunate Maxentius. Constantine finished the job and affixed his name to this, the largest and most impressive building in the Forum. To our taste, the more delicate Greek-influenced temples are more attractive, but we have to admire the scale and engineering skill that erected this
monument. The fact that portions of the original coffered ceiling are still intact is amazing. The basilica once held a statue of Constantine so large that his little toe was as wide as an average man's waist. As far as Roman emperors went, Christian or otherwise, ego knew no bounds. The hall itself was as long as a football field lavishly furnished with colorful inlaid marble gilded bronze ceiling and statues.
Many of the large basalt stones under my feet were walked on by Caesar Augustus 2,000 years ago. To the right is the Temple of Romulus-- It's the doors themselves that are really of note here--they're the original Roman doors, swinging on the same massive hinges they were mounted on in A.D. 306. In this case, the temple is not dedicated to the legendary cofounder of Rome, but to the son of its builder, Emperor Maxentius, who named his son Romulus in a fit of antiquarian patriotism. I videoed the structure from top to bottom.
Next was the Forum’s Main Square (pictured earlier) a flat patch about the size of a football field, stretching to Capitol Hill. Surrounding it were temples, law courts, government buildings and triumphant arches. Rome was born here he square was the busiest and most crowded section of town. The Forum is now rubble, but imagine it in its prime with white marble buildings and 40-foot high columns, rows of statues and chariots rattling down the Via Sacra. Julius Caesar once leaned against these rocks.
Next I observed the: beautifully proportioned Temple of Antoninus and Faustina-- in the Roman Forum. It's the building (above) with the freestanding colonnade. Only the 50-foot-tall Corinthian colonnade dates from imperial times (138-161 AD); the building behind it is a much later church dedicated to San Lorenzo.
Then I concentrated on remains of a small white circular temple – the Temple of Vesta-. Here dwelt the sacred flame of Rome and the Atrium of the Vestal Virgins A vestal virgin was usually a girl of good family who signed a contract for 30 years. During that time she lived in the ruin I was standing in right now. Of course, back then it was an unimaginably rich marble building with two floors. There were only six vestal virgins at a time during the imperial period, and even though they had the option of going back out into the world at the end of their 30 years, few did.
The cult of Vesta came to an end in A.D. 394, when a Christian Rome secularized all its pagan temples. A man standing on this site before then would have been put to death immediately. The House of the Vestal Virgins (Casa delle Vestali) central courtyard has a row of eroded, and mostly headless, statues of senior Vestals.
Next on the tape is Temple of the Castors (with three Corinthian columns) on Palatine Hill overlooking the Forum. Caligula’s Palace (a.k.a. the Palace of Tiberius) was a huge palace, with an entrance from within the Temple of the Castors Caligula was not a nice person. He tortured enemies, stole senators’ wives and had his horse appointed to the Senate (as we learned in Professor Hartwig’s class back in 1956).
Off to the right and further down is the six story high Arch of Septimius Severus. The triumphal arch is one of the most striking and best-preserved monuments of the Forum. The arch was dedicated at the dawn of the troubled 3rd century to the last decent emperor to govern Rome for some time. The friezes on the arch depict victories over Arabs and Parthians by the cold but upright Severus and his two dissolute sons, Geta and Caracalla. Severus died on a campaign to subdue the unruly natives of Scotland.
At the end of the first decade of the 3rd century, Rome unhappily fell into the hands of the young Caracalla, chiefly remembered today for the baths he ordered built. During the Middle Ages the central arch, half buried in earth and debris, was used to shelter a barber’s shop.
Then I turned around to record the east (this end) of the main square and the foundations of a temple -Temple of Julius Caesar --now capped with a peaked wood-and-metal roof. Julius Caesar was buried on this spot (under the metal roof) after his assassination. Fresh flowers mark the site. The funeral was held here, facing the main square. Mark Anthony stood up to say, in the words of Shakespeare, “Friends,
Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears, I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.”
Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears, I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.”
I turned around again (180 degrees) to view the Rostra- or Rostrum. This was the podium from which dictators and caesars addressed the throngs of the Forum below. Men such as Cicero railed against the corruption and decadence that came with the city’s wealth.
The head and hands of Cucero were put on display after Mark Anthony and Augusta had put him to death. Mark Anthony’s wife stabbed the great orator’s tongue with a hairpin. We can just imagine the emperor, shining in his white toga, surrounded by imperial guards and distinguished senators, gesticulating grandly like one of the statues on a Roman roofline. The motley crowd falls silent, the senators pause and listen, the merchants put down their measures, and even the harlots and unruly soldiers lower their voices in such an august presence. Later emperors didn't have much cause to use the Rostra; they made their policies known through edicts and assassinations instead.
To the right of Forum Square is the Curia, or Senate house--It's the large brick building that still has its roof. Romans had been meeting on this site for centuries before the first structure was erected, and that was still centuries before Jesus.
The present building is the fifth (if we count all the reconstructions and substantial rehabilitations) to stand on the site. Legend has it that the original building was constructed by an ancient king with the curious name of Tullus Hostilius. The tradition he began was noble indeed, and our present legislative system owes much to the Romans who met in this hall. Unfortunately, the high ideals and inviolate morals that characterized the early Republican senators gave way to the bootlicking of imperial times, when the Senate became little more than a rubber stamp. Caligula, who was only the third emperor, which pretty much sums up the state of the Senate by the middle of the 1st century A.D.
The building was a church until 1937, when the fascist government tore out the baroque interior and revealed what we see today. The original floor of Egyptian marble and the tiers that held the seats of the senators have miraculously survived. In addition, at the far end of the great chamber we can see the stone on which rested the fabled golden statue of Victory. Originally installed by Augustus, it was disposed of in the 4th century by a fiercely divided Senate whose Christian members convinced the emperor that it was improper to have a pagan statue in such a revered place.
The building was a church until 1937, when the fascist government tore out the baroque interior and revealed what we see today. The original floor of Egyptian marble and the tiers that held the seats of the senators have miraculously survived. In addition, at the far end of the great chamber we can see the stone on which rested the fabled golden statue of Victory. Originally installed by Augustus, it was disposed of in the 4th century by a fiercely divided Senate whose Christian members convinced the emperor that it was improper to have a pagan statue in such a revered place.
Now I turned my attention to Palatine Hill that overlooks the Forum.
Here lie the ruins of the Palace of Septemius Serverus.
Many regal palaces, including that of Cicero, were built up on the heights here, but I concentrated on the extention of the Domus Agustana, or the Palace of Septimius Severus.
Here lie the ruins of the Palace of Septemius Serverus.
Many regal palaces, including that of Cicero, were built up on the heights here, but I concentrated on the extention of the Domus Agustana, or the Palace of Septimius Severus.
On the Forum level to the right note the slender 44 foot high Column of Phocas--Probably lifted from an early structure in the vicinity, this was the last monument to be erected in the Roman Forum (608 AD), and it commemorates the Byzantine emperor Phocas's generous donation of the Pantheon to the pope of Rome, who almost immediately transformed it into a church. It is like a symbolic last nail in ancient Rome’s coffin. After Rome’s 1,000-year reign, vandals looted the city; the population of a million-plus shrank to 10,000. and the Forum was abandoned and covered up by centuries of silt and dirt. In the 1700s Edward Gibbon overlooked this spot as he pondered the decline and fall of the Roman Empire.
From here I exited the Forum at the nearby Mamertine Prison. Gauls constructed the Prison in around the time of the First Sack of Rome, about 386 BC. It was originally created as a cistern for a spring in the floor of the second lower level (there were two, the lower of which was where prisoners were kept by lowering them through the floor of the upper room), but eventually a passage between the cistern drain and the Cloaca Maxima was constructed, reputedly for flushing out dead bodies.
Typically, only higher profile prisoners were kept in the prison, usually foreign commanders who were defeated and became the centerpiece in a Roman triumphant procession. They usually remained incarcerated until they were taken out and executed, unless they happened to die of natural causes first (Roman law did not recognize imprisonment itself as punishment).
Typically, only higher profile prisoners were kept in the prison, usually foreign commanders who were defeated and became the centerpiece in a Roman triumphant procession. They usually remained incarcerated until they were taken out and executed, unless they happened to die of natural causes first (Roman law did not recognize imprisonment itself as punishment).
It is not known when the prison went out of service permanently, but the site has been used for Christian worship since medieval times, and is currently occupied by two superimposed churches: S. Giuseppe dei Falegnami (upper) and S. Pietro in Carcere (lower). The altar in the lower chapel is upside down, since according to tradition Saint Peter was crucified upside down. The altar on the upper level had a bust of St. Peter with the symbolic keys of heaven. While the prison's association with Saint Peter is a matter of legend rather than reliable historical fact, being first documented in 6th-century texts, it is nonetheless a significant religious site. According to tradition, Saint Philip, Saint Ignatius, Saint Theresa of Liseux, and Saint Benedict visited it.
After leaving the prison (donation required), I walked toward Via dei Fori Imperiali. On my right was Forum of Julius Caesar (not on video). This is the last set of sunken ruins before the Victor Emmanuel monument. Although it's possible to go right down into the ruins, I could see everything just as well from the railing. This was the site of the Roman stock exchange, as well as of the Temple of Venus, a few of whose restored columns stand cinematically in the middle of the excavations. I walked up to Foro Traiano then Via 4 Novenbre to Via Nationale and back to Hotel Quirinale.
Day 6, Monday Margaret chose not to have a big breakfast this morning so I brought her a freshly brewed cup of coffee from the restaurant. She waited in the lobby for the limo that was to pick us up for the airport transfer. Originally Gate 1 Travel was to provide transportation because we had purchased vouchers, but the company told Margaret that because she had an electric scooter she would have to pay 85 euro ($130) to their driver. Margaret cancelled them and arranged a limo for 55 euro. Four people loaded the scooter into the limo and we were off.
The scooter could not move by its own power and could not be pushed (stripped gears) so when we arrived at the airport Delta employees supplied an airport wheelchair and checked the scooter in for St. Louis pick-up. While waiting at Gate 26 for our Delta flight, we ambled over for some gelato.
After leaving the prison (donation required), I walked toward Via dei Fori Imperiali. On my right was Forum of Julius Caesar (not on video). This is the last set of sunken ruins before the Victor Emmanuel monument. Although it's possible to go right down into the ruins, I could see everything just as well from the railing. This was the site of the Roman stock exchange, as well as of the Temple of Venus, a few of whose restored columns stand cinematically in the middle of the excavations. I walked up to Foro Traiano then Via 4 Novenbre to Via Nationale and back to Hotel Quirinale.
Day 6, Monday Margaret chose not to have a big breakfast this morning so I brought her a freshly brewed cup of coffee from the restaurant. She waited in the lobby for the limo that was to pick us up for the airport transfer. Originally Gate 1 Travel was to provide transportation because we had purchased vouchers, but the company told Margaret that because she had an electric scooter she would have to pay 85 euro ($130) to their driver. Margaret cancelled them and arranged a limo for 55 euro. Four people loaded the scooter into the limo and we were off.
The scooter could not move by its own power and could not be pushed (stripped gears) so when we arrived at the airport Delta employees supplied an airport wheelchair and checked the scooter in for St. Louis pick-up. While waiting at Gate 26 for our Delta flight, we ambled over for some gelato.
Tubs of homemade ice cream-among the best in the world-awaited in a dazzling array of flavors: everything from candied orange peels with chocolate to watermelon to rice. Gelaterie offer semifreddi concoctions (made with cream instead of milk) in such flavors as almond, marengo (a type of meringue), and zabaglione (eggnog). This refreshment fulfilled Margaret’s last goal for this visit to Rome.
Thus ended our adventure in Rome.
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